Warranties, indemnities, conditions and completion mechanics — your questions answered
Q. ¿Qué es un contrato de compraventa de acciones?
A share purchase agreement (SPA) is the principal legal document governing the sale and purchase of shares in a company. It sets out the terms on which the seller agrees to sell and the buyer agrees to buy the shares, including the consideration, the mechanics of completion, the warranties and indemnities given by the seller and the limitations on the seller’s liability.
A well-drafted SPA will cover: the identity of the parties and the shares being sold; the consideration and how it is calculated; any conditions that must be satisfied before completion can occur; the obligations of both parties between exchange and completion; the seller’s warranties about the state of the business; any specific indemnities for identified risks; limitations on the seller’s liability; and post-completion obligations such as non-compete restrictions.
The SPA is usually accompanied by a disclosure letter (in which the seller qualifies the warranties by disclosing specific matters), a tax covenant or tax deed, and potentially a suite of ancillary documents entre otros employment agreements for retained management, propiedad transfers, and IP assignments.
Q. ¿Qué garantías se suelen ofrecer en un contrato de compraventa de acciones?
Warranties in an SPA are contractual assurances given by the seller about the state of the target company. If a warranty proves to be untrue and the buyer suffers loss as a result, the buyer has a claim in damages. Warranties cover a broad range of matters and typically run to many pages in a mid-market SPA.
Las principales categorías de garantía incluyen:
- Title warranties — confirming that the seller owns the shares being sold, free from encumbrances, and has the legal capacity to sell them.
- Garantías contables: confirman que las cuentas auditadas más recientes ofrecen una imagen fiel de la situación financiera de la empresa.
- Garantías comerciales: confirman que, desde la última fecha de cierre de cuentas, la empresa ha operado en el curso ordinario de sus negocios y no se han producido cambios adversos importantes.
- Contracts warranties — confirming that there are no material contracts that will terminate or be affected by the change of ownership, and that the company is not in breach of its material contracts.
- Employment warranties — confirming the accuracy of the disclosed employee information, the absence of undisclosed bonus or benefit arrangements, and the absence of active employment disputes.
- Propiedad intelectual warranties — confirming the company’s ownership of (or right to use) its key intellectual property, including trade marks, software, databases and domain names.
- Tax warranties — confirming that the company’s tax affairs are in order, all returns have been filed and all tax due has been paid.
- Litigios warranties — confirming that there are no current or threatened legal proceedings against the company.
- Property warranties — confirming the accuracy of the disclosed property interests and the absence of material disputes with propietarios or neighbours.
The scope and detail of warranties is heavily negotiated. Sellers seek to limit them; compradores seek the broadest possible protection.
Q. ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre una garantía y una indemnización en un contrato de compraventa de acciones?
This is one of the most important distinctions in SPA law, and one that has very practical consequences for how claims are assessed and what the buyer can recover.
Una garantía is a contractual promise that a statement of fact is true. If the warranty is breached, the buyer’s remedy is a claim in damages for the diminution in value of the shares — the difference between what the buyer paid and what it would have paid had the warranty been true. The buyer must prove breach, quantify the loss on a ‘diminution in value’ basis, mitigate its loss, and act before the claim becomes statute-barred. Disclosure against a warranty defeats the claim.
Una indemnización es una promesa contractual de reembolsar al comprador libra por libra por una pérdida específica si se produce. La indemnización se activa al producirse el hecho especificado, independientemente de si equivale a un incumplimiento de la garantía. No es necesario demostrar una reducción del valor de la acción, no hay obligación de mitigar el daño y la revelación de la información no anula la reclamación. El vendedor simplemente paga la pérdida.
Las indemnizaciones se utilizan para riesgos específicos e identificados: una obligación fiscal conocida, un litigio en curso, un problema medioambiental revelado o una conducta previa a la finalización que pueda dar lugar a futuras reclamaciones. Las garantías ofrecen una protección general para toda la empresa.
Q. ¿Qué es una carta de información y por qué es importante?
A disclosure letter is a document provided by the seller to the buyer at exchange of the SPA, setting out specific matters that qualify or override the warranties. Any asunto that is fairly and specifically disclosed in the disclosure letter is deemed accepted by the buyer — it cannot subsequently form the basis of a warranty claim.
La carta de información suele tener dos niveles. Las declaraciones generales se refieren a asuntos que están a disposición del público (como los registros en el Registro Mercantil, el Registro de la Propiedad y la Agencia Tributaria) y que el comprador considera conocidos. Las declaraciones específicas son afirmaciones concretas realizadas por el vendedor en relación con determinadas garantías, cada una de ellas respaldada por los documentos pertinentes en un paquete de información.
Para los vendedores, la carta de comunicación es de vital importancia, ya que es el principal mecanismo por el que el vendedor limita su exposición en virtud de las garantías. Un vendedor que no revele un asunto importante puede ser responsable de una reclamación de garantía al respecto, incluso si realmente creía que el comprador conocía el problema.
For buyers, careful scrutiny of the disclosure letter is equally critical. Disclosures that are vague or generic (‘the company’s contracts are as disclosed in the data room’) may not be sufficiently specific to qualify a warranty — but a buyer who signs without properly reviewing the disclosures may find it difficult to argue that a disclosure was inadequate after the event.
Q. ¿Cómo se calcula y ajusta la contraprestación por la compra de acciones?
The consideration in a share sale can be structured in various ways, depending on the comercial preferences of the parties and the nature of the business being acquired.
Precio fijo - una única suma acordada en el momento del intercambio, pagadera en el momento de la conclusión. Es la estructura más sencilla, pero no ofrece ningún mecanismo que refleje la situación financiera real de la empresa en el momento de la conclusión.
Mecanismo de cuentas de finalización - el precio se ajusta tras la conclusión para reflejar el capital circulante real, la deuda neta y/o los activos netos de la empresa en la fecha de conclusión, en comparación con una cifra objetivo acordada en el momento del intercambio. Este es el mecanismo más común para las transacciones de mercado medio.
Mecanismo de caja cerrada - the consideration is fixed by reference to a historical balance sheet (the ‘locked box’ date), and the buyer takes economic risk and benefit from that date. Between the locked box date and completion, the seller is prohibited from extracting value from the business (known as ‘leakage’). Increasingly common in private equity transactions as it provides price certainty.
Deferred consideration / earn-out — part of the price is deferred and payable after completion, either unconditionally (on a fixed date) or contingently (subject to performance targets being met). See the separate chapter on deferred consideration and security.
El mecanismo adecuado depende de la naturaleza de la empresa, de la posición negociadora de las partes y de la propensión al riesgo de ambas partes. Los compradores suelen preferir un mecanismo de cuentas de cierre (que se ajusta a la posición real en el momento del cierre); los vendedores suelen preferir una caja cerrada (que ofrece seguridad).